This book explores the visual representations of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib—the fourth Caliph and the first Shiʿi Imam—in early Ilkhanid painting, where his figure reflects the contemporary Sufi and Shiʿi trends that permeated the successive Ilkhanid courts of Ghazan Khan and Öljeitü. While the historical figure of ʿAlī is extensively documented in classical Islamic texts such as The History of Ṭabarī, including accounts of his brutal military campaigns against various Iranian groups and Arabian Jewish tribes, he has also been widely praised in both Sunni and Shiʿi sources for his loyalty to the Prophet Muhammad, particularly during Muhammad’s military wars against his opponents.

Whereas Sufi views of ʿAlī emphasize his virtues as a spiritual exemplar—or fatā—celebrated by the futuwwa (chivalric) orders, Shiʿi veneration of ʿAlī rests on strictly doctrinal foundations, asserting his sole legitimacy as Muhammad’s successor and the rightful leader of the Muslim community.

As the book first argues, the Ilkhanid paintings produced under Ghazan Khan reflect a convergence of Sufi and Shiʿi currents within the courtly culture—a form of syncretism marked by a fluid overlap of imagery and doctrine that blurs sectarian boundaries.

The study then moves forward in time to focus on Ghazan Khan’s successor, Öljeitü, whose patronage fostered paintings that shift decisively toward strictly Shiʿi themes, signaling the emergence of a distinctly Shiʿi visual program.

Ultimately, the book examines how these religious and ideological developments shaped the visual representation of ʿAlī throughout the early Ilkhanid period, raising important questions about sectarian identity, artistic intention, and the formation of sacred imagery prior to the rise of Safavid state-sponsored Shiʿism.