This book explores the visual veneration of ‘Ali b. Abi Talib—the first Shi‘i Imam and fourth Caliph—in early Ilkhanid painting produced under Ghazan Khan and Öljeitü. While the historical figure of ‘Ali is extensively documented in classical Islamic texts such as The History of Tabari, including accounts of his campaigns of violence against both Iranian people and Arabian Jewish tribes, he has also been widely praised in Sunni and Shi‘i sources for his loyalty to Prophet Muhammad, in particular in the latter’s military campaigns against his rivals.

The study focuses on pro-‘Ali motifs in Ilkhanid art, examining how they reflect not only Shi‘i reverence but also Sufi admiration for ‘Ali as a spiritual exemplar. Many Sufi orders trace their initiatic lineages (silsila) through ‘Ali and credit him with founding ascetic and mystical traditions. This dual veneration—by both Shi‘a and Sufis—resulted in a fluid overlap of imagery and doctrine, blurring sectarian lines. The book argues that these Ilkhanid paintings likely reflect this syncretism: a convergence of Shi‘i and Sufi currents within the courtly culture, rather than exclusively Shi‘i patronage.

Appendix I provides a background on pre-Ilkhanid Shi‘i and Sufi views of ‘Ali, with a focus on his virtues as emphasized by the futuwwa (chivalric) orders, particularly the Suhrawardiyya and Kubraviyya, as well as in early Shi‘i texts.

The main chapters analyze how these religious and ideological currents shaped the visual representation of ‘Ali, raising important questions about sectarian identity, artistic intent, and the formation of sacred imagery prior to the rise of Safavid state-sponsored Shi‘ism.